Compositions and methods for altering the biodistribution of biological agents

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to a new and improved pharmaceutical composition and method for delivery of therapeutic agents. The methods and composition of the invention can be used with several therapeutic agents and can achieve site specific delivery of a therapeutic or diagnostic substance. This can allow for lower doses and for improved efficacy with drugs which traditionally reach targeted sites and can result in improved utility for agents such as oligonucleotides and polynucleotides which are plagued with problems with biodistribution.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a division of application Ser. No. 09/118,168, filedJul. 17, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,117,858 which is acontinuation-in-part of Ser. No. 08/670,999, filed Jun. 28, 1996, nowU.S. Pat. No. 5,849,727, both of which are hereby incorporated byreference in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to a new and improved pharmaceutical compositionand method for delivery of bioactive substances. The methods andcomposition of the invention can be used with several agents and canachieve site specific delivery of a biologically active substances. Thiscan allow for lower doses and for improved efficacy with drugsparticularly agents such as oligonucleotides which are plagued withproblems in achieving therapeutic concentrations at targeted organs.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Drug delivery techniques are employed in the formulation of all drugtherapy to augment drug availability, to reduce drug dose, andconsequently to reduce drug-induced side effects. These techniques serveto control, regulate, and target the release of drugs in the body. Thegoals have been to provide less frequent drug administration, tomaintain constant and continuous therapeutic levels of a drug in thesystemic circulation or at a specific target organ site, to achieve areduction in undesirable side effects, and to promote a reduction in theamount and dose concentration required to realize the desiredtherapeutic benefit.

To date, drug delivery systems have included drug carriers based uponproteins, polysaccharides, synthetic polymers, erythrocytes, DNA andliposomes. New generation biologicals such as monoclonal antibodies,gene therapy vectors, anti-cancer drugs such as Taxol, viral baseddrugs, and oligo and poly nucleotides have presented several problemswith regard to delivery. In fact drug delivery may be the primary hurdleto achieving mainstream therapeutic use of these biologics whose initialpotential seemed unlimited but whose therapeutic parameters haveprevented realization of full benefit.

Synthetic oligodeoxyribonucleotides which are chemically modified toconfer nuclease resistance represent a fundamentally different approachto drug therapy. The most common applications to date are antisenseoligos with sequences complementary to a specific targeted mRNAsequence. An antisense oligonucleotide approach to therapy involves aremarkably simple and specific drug design concept in which the oligocauses a mechanistic intervention in the processes of translation or anearlier processing event. The advantage of this approach is thepotential for gene-specific actions which should be reflected in arelatively low dose and minimal non-targeted side effects.

Phosphorothioate analogs of polynucleotides have chiral internucleosidelinkages in which one of the non-bridging ligands is sulfur. Thephosphorothioate analog is currently the most commonly employed analoguein biological studies including both in vitro and in vivo. The mostapparent disadvantage of phosphorothioate oligonucleotides include thehigh cost of preparation of sufficient amounts of high quality materialand non-specific binding to proteins. Hence, the primary advantage ofantisense approach (low dose and minimal side effects) fall short ofexpectations.

Drug delivery efforts with regard to oligonucleotides andpolynucleotides have focused on two key challenges; transfection ofoligonucleotides into cells and alteration of distribution ofoligonucleotides in vivo.

Transfection involves the enhancement of in vitro cellular uptake.Biological approaches to improve uptake have included viral vectors suchas reconstituted viruses and pseudo virions, and chemicals such asliposomes. Methods to improve biodistribution have focused on suchthings as cationic lipids, which are postulated to increase cellularuptake of drugs due to the positively charged lipid attraction to thenegatively charged surfaces of most cells.

Lipofection and DC-cholesterol liposomes have been reported to enhancegene transfer into vascular cells in vivo when administered by catheter.Cationic lipid DNA complexes have also been reported to result ineffective gene transfer into mouse lungs after intratrachealadministration.

Cationic liposomal delivery of oligonucleotides has also beenaccomplished however, altered distribution to the lung and liver wasexperienced. Asialoglycoprotein poly(L)-lysine complexes have met withlimited success as well as complexation with Sendai virus coat proteincontaining liposomes. Toxicity and biodistribution, however, haveremained significant issues.

From the foregoing it can be seen that a targeted drug delivery systemfor delivery of biologics, particularly poly and oligo nucleotides isneeded for these drugs to achieve their fullest potential.

One object of this invention is to provide a novel composition of matterto deliver a pharmaceutical agent to a targeted site in vivo.

Another object of the invention is to provide a method for delivering apharmaceutical agent, increasing drug bioavailability and decreasingtoxicity.

Another object of the invention is to provide a method of forming anovel composition of matter for delivering a pharmaceutical agent to atargeted site in vivo by sonicating perfluorocarbon containingmicrobubbles in a nitrogen-free environment.

Other objects of the inventions will become apparent from thedescription of the invention which follows.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to the invention a new biologically active agent deliverymethod and composition are disclosed. The compositions and methods canbe used to deliver agents such as therapeutics or diagnostics which havebeen plagued with delivery problems, such as oligonucleotides, as wellas traditional agents and can drastically reduce the effective dosagesof each, increasing the therapeutic index and improving bioavailability.This in turn can reduce drug cytotoxicity and side effects.

The invention employs conjugation of the biologic agent with afilmogenic protein which is formed as a protein shell microbubbleencapsulating an insoluble gas. The composition is prepared as anaqueous suspension of a plurality of the microbubbles for parenteraladministration. Conjugation of the biologic with albumin or other suchprotein encapsulated microbubbles can allow for targeted delivery of thebiologic to alternate including those which traditionally interact withthe protein.

Improved gas-filled microbubbles with enhanced stability and thus betterdelivery capabilities are achieved by forming the microbubbles in thepresence of a nitrogen-free environment. The nitrogen-free environmentmakes microbubbles which are significantly smaller than microbubblesobtained in a room air environment. These smaller microbubbles are morestable than microbubbles manufactured in a room air environment andresult in improved delivery of the biologic.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 is a Lineweaver-Burke plot of the binding data for PESDAmicrobubbles with PS-ODN. The equilibrium dissociation constant K_(m)(calculated for the 7 concentrations which were run in duplicate) forthe binding to the microbubbles was 1.76×10⁻⁵M. (r²=0.999; Y-int=0.0566;7 concentrations). This is nearly within the range observed for bindinga 15mer PS-ODN with sequence 5′d(AACGTTGAGGGGCAT)-3′ (SEQ ID NO:1) tohuman serum albumin in solution of 3.7-4.8×10⁻⁵M previously reportedSrinivasan SK et al, “Characterization of binding sites, extent ofbinding, and drug interactions of oligonucleotides with albumin. AntisenRes. Dev. 5:131, 1995.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Ultrasonic imaging has long been used as a diagnostic tool to aid intherapeutic procedures. It is based on the principle that waves of soundenergy can be focused upon an area of interest and reflected to producean image. Generally an ultrasonic transducer is placed on a body surfaceoverlying the area to be imaged and ultrasonic energy, produced bygenerating and receiving sound waves, is transmitted. The ultrasonicenergy is reflected back to the transducer where it is translated intoan ultrasonic image. The amount of characteristics of the reflectedenergy depend upon the acoustic properties of the tissues, and contrastagents which are echogenic are preferably used to create ultrasonicenergy in the area of interest and improve the imaging received. For adiscussion of contrast echographic instrumentation, see, DeJong and,“Acoustic Properties of Ultrasound Contrast Agents”, CIP-GEGEVENSKONINKLIJKE BIBLIOTHEEK, DENHAG (1993), pp. 120 et seq.

Contrast echocardiography has been used to delineate intracardiacstructures, assess valvular competence, and demonstrate intracardiacshunts. Myocardial contrast echocardiography (MCE) has been used tomeasure coronary blood flow reserve in humans. MCE has been found to bea safe and useful technique for evaluating relative changes inmyocardial perfusion and delineating areas at risk.

Ultrasonic vibration has also been used at therapeutic levels in themedical field to increase the absorption of various medicaments. Forexample in Japanese Patent Kokai number 115591/1977 discloses thatpercutaneous absorption of a medicament is enhanced by ultrasonicvibration. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,953,565 and 5,007,438 also disclose atechnique of percutaneous absorption of medicaments by the aid ofultrasonic vibration. U.S. Pat. No. 5,315,998 discloses a booster fordrug therapy comprising microbubbles in combination ultrasonic energy toallow the medicament to diffuse and penetrate. This discloses the use oftherapeutic levels of ultrasound for up to 20 minutes in contrast to theinvention which uses diagnostic levels of ultrasound with exposure formuch shorter time periods to achieve release of conjugated bioactiveagents.

Applicant has demonstrated that traditional diagnostic ultrasoundtherapy contrast agents can be used as a specific targeted deliverydevice to release therapeutic agents at the specifically designatedsites of interest thereby altering drug distribution. Surprisingly, thisobjective can be accomplished with the contrast agent alone and withoutthe use of any diagnostic ultrasound.

The pharmaceutical composition of the invention comprises a liquidsuspension containing microbubbles of an insoluble gas having a diameterof 0.1 to 10 microns. The microbubbles are formed by entrappingmicrobubbles of a gas into a liquid. The microbubbles are made ofvarious insoluble gases such as fluorocarbon or sulfur hexafluoride gas.The liquid includes any liquid which can form microbubbles. Generallyany insoluble gas can be used. It must be gaseous at body temperatureand be nontoxic. The gas must also form stable microbubbles of averagesize of between about 0.1 and 10 microns in diameter when thepharmaceutical composition is sonicated to form microbubbles. Generallyperfluorocarbon gases such as perfluoromethane, perfluoroethane,perfluoropropane, perfluorobutane, perfluoropentane are preferred. Ofthese gases, perfluoropropane and perfluorobutane are especiallypreferred because of their demonstrated safety for intraocular injectionin humans. They have been used in human studies for intraocularinjections to stabilize retinal detachments (Wong and Thompson,Opthamology 95:609-613). Treatment with intraocular perfluoropropane isconsidered to be the standard of care for treatment of this disorder.The gases must also have a diffusion coefficient and blood solubilitylower than nitrogen or oxygen which diffuse once in the internalatmosphere of the blood vessel.

Other inert gases such as sulfur hexafluoride are also useful in theinvention provided they have a diffusion coefficient and bloodsolubility lower than nitrogen or oxygen. The agent of the invention isformulated in a pharmaceutically effective dosage form for peripheraladministration to the host. Generally such host is a human host,although other mammalian hosts such as canine or equine can also besubject to this therapy.

The pharmaceutical liquid composition of the invention uses a liquidwherein the microbubbles are stabilized by a filmogenic protein coating.Suitable proteins include naturally occurring proteins such as albumin,human gamma globulin, human apotransferin, Beta lactose and urease. Theinvention preferably employs a naturally occurring protein but syntheticproteins may also be used. Preferred is human serum albumin.

It is also optional to use an aqueous solution containing a mixture of apharmaceutically accepted saccharide e.g., dextrose, in combination withthe earlier described protein. In a preferred embodiment thepharmaceutical liquid composition of the invention is the sonicatedmixture of commercially available albumin (human), U.S.P. solution(generally supplied as 5% or 25% by weight sterile aqueous solutions),and commercially available dextrose, U.S.P. for intravenousadministration. The mixture is sonicated under ambient conditions i.e.room air temperature and pressure and is perfused with an insoluble gas(99.9% by weight) during sonication.

In a most preferred embodiment the pharmaceutical liquid compositionincludes a two-fold to eight-fold dilution of 5% to 50% by weight ofdextrose and a 2% to 10% by weight of human serum albumin. Exemplary ofother saccharide solutions of the invention are aqueous monosaccharidesolution (e.g. having the formula C₆H₁₂O₆ such as the hexose sugars,dextrose or fructose or mixtures thereof), aqueous disaccharide solution(e.g. having a formula C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ such as sucrose, lactose or maltose ormixtures thereof), or aqueous polysaccharide solution (e.g. solublestarches having the formula C₆H₁₀O₅(n) wherein n is a whole numberinteger between 20 and about 200 such as amylase or dextran or mixturesthereof.

The microbubbles are formed by sonication, typically with a sonicatinghorn. Sonication by ultrasonic energy causes cavitation within thedextrose albumin solution at sites of particulate matter or gas in thefluid. These cavitation sites eventually resonate and produce smallmicrobubbles (about 7 microns in size) which are non-collapsing andstable. In general, sonication conditions which produce concentrationsof greater than about 4×10⁸ m of between about 5 and about 6 micronmicrobubbles are preferred. Generally the mixture will be sonicated forabout 80 seconds, while being perfused with an insoluble gas, in thepresence of room air.

A second method of preparation includes hand agitating 15±2 ml ofsonicated dextrose albumin with 8±2 ml of perfluorocarbon gas prior tosonication. Sonication then proceeds for 80±5 seconds.

In a preferred embodiment, the microbubbles are formed in a 100% oxygenor a nitrogen-free environment. Microbubbles formed in theseenvironments are significantly smaller than those formed in the presenceof room air. These smaller microbubbles are more stable and result inimproved delivery of biologics.

The inventors became aware of the advantages of using a nitrogen-freeenvironment or 100% oxygen through the observation that gas-filledmicrobubbles produced better ultrasound contrast following venousinjection than room air filled microbubbles. One reason for thisimproved contrast is the prolonged survival of the gas-filledmicrobubbles following intravenous injection. In comparison, room airfilled microbubbles of comparable size are rapidly destroyed followingvenous injection because of rapid diffusion of the soluble gases out ofthe microbubble. Computer simulations, however, have shown that thesesoluble gases still affect the size of gas-filled microbubbles in blood,thereby affecting their ultrasound characteristics. Burkard, M. E. etal. (1994), Oxygen transport to tissue by persistent bubbles: theory andsimulations. J Appl Physiol 2874-8. These models have theorized thatblood nitrogen plays an important role in preventing the outwarddiffusion of the gas within the microbubble.

It was postulated that by enhancing microbubble oxygen content (thuslowering partial pressures of nitrogen within the microbubble), theycould prolong microbubble survival in blood. The presence of anitrogen-free environment was found to produce substantially smallermicrobubbles which are more stable in the bloodstream. This results inimproved contrast and drug delivery.

These microbubble sizes are particularly ideal since a microbubble musthave a mean diameter of less than 10 microns and greater than 0.1 to besufficient for transpulmonary passage, and must be stable enough toprevent significant diffusion of gases within the microbubble followingintravenous injection and during transit to the target site.

As used herein the term “nitrogen free” shall mean a nitrogen contentwhich is less than that of room air such that the partial pressure ofnitrogen in gas-filled microbubbles formed by sonication is lower thanthat achieved from sonication with room air (typically about 70-80%nitrogen).

The microbubbles are next incubated with the medicament so that themedicament becomes conjugated with the microbubble. Quite unexpectedlyit was demonstrated that filmogenic proteins in the form of microbubblesas previously used in contrast agents retain their ability to bindmedicaments. This is surprising because traditionally it was thoughtthat in the formation of microbubble contrast agents the protein spherewas made of denatured protein. Applicant has demonstrated that when aninsoluble gas instead of air is used for the microbubble, much of thesonication energy is absorbed by the gas and the protein retains itsbinding activity. Air filled microbubbles do not retain their bindingcapabilities and cannot be used in the method of the invention.

The therapy involves the use of a pharmaceutical composition conjugatedto a protein microbubble of a diameter of about 0.1 to 10 microns. Theinvention uses agents traditionally used in diagnostic ultrasoundimaging.

Therapeutic agents useful in the present invention are selected viatheir ability to bind with the filmogenic protein. For example if thefilmogenic protein is albumin, the therapeutic or diagnostic agent caninclude oligonucleotides (such as antisense or antigen oligos),polynucleotides (such as retroviral, adenoviral, plasmid vectors orprobes), or ribozymes all of which can bind with albumin and as such canform a conjugation with the microbubble. A list of drugs which bind toalbumin at site 1 (which retains its binding capacity) and thus would beuseful in the methods and compositions of the present invention in thealbumin embodiment follows:

Drug % Albumin Binding Drug Class Naproxen 99.7 NSAID⊕ Piroxicam 99.3NSAID⊕ Warfarin 99.0 Anticoagulant Furosemide 98.8 Loop diureticPhenylbutazone 96.1 NSAID⊕ Valproic Acid 93.0 AntiepilepticSulfisoxazole 91.4 Sulfonimide Antibiotic Ceftriaxone  90-95* ThirdGeneration cephalosporin antibiotic Miconazole  90.7-93.1* AntifungalPhenytoin 89.0 Antiepileptic ⊕Nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drug*Represents patient-to-patient variability

Other drugs which bind with albumin, particularly at site 1, would alsobe useful in this embodiment and can be ascertained by those of skill inthe art through drug interaction and pharmacology texts standard tothose of skill in the art, such as “Drug Information” or “Facts andComparisons”, published by Berney Olin and updated every quarter. Othersuch references are widely available in the art. Assays fordetermination of appropriate protein-therapeutic combinations aredisclosed herein and can be used to test any combination for its abilityto work with the method of the invention.

According to a preferred embodiment of the invention, protein coatedmicrobubbles of insoluble gas have been found to form stable conjugateswith oligonucleotides. The oligo conjugated bubbles are then introducedto the animal and the protein coating directs the conjugated agent tosites of interaction. Ultimately as the bubble dissipates the agent willbe released at the tissue site.

This is of particular relevance to oligonucleotide and polynucleotidetherapy as the primary hurdle to effective anti-sense, anti-gene, oreven gene therapy employing viral or plasmid nucleotide delivery is theability of the therapeutic to reach the target site at high enoughconcentrations to achieve a therapeutic effect. Therapeutic sites caninclude such things as the location of a specific tumor, an organ whichdue to differential gene activation expresses a particular gene product,the site of an injury or thrombosis, a site for further processing anddistribution of the therapeutic etc. Generally the target site isselected based upon the bioprocessing of the filmogenic protein. Forexample the kidneys and liver take up albumin and albumin microbubblescan be used to specifically direct the administration of conjugatedbioactive agents to these areas. The metabolism and bioprocessing ofother filmogenic proteins can be easily obtained through standardpharmacologic texts such as Basic and Clinical Pharmacology by BertramG. Katzung the relevant disclosure of which is incorporated byreference.

The method preferred for practicing the delivery therapy of theinvention involves obtaining a pharmaceutical liquid agent of theinvention, introducing said agent into a host by intravenous injection,intravenously (i.v. infusion), percutaneously or intramuscularly. Themicrobubble is then processed in the animal and is taken up andinteracted with according to the filmogenic protein which coats themicrobubble. Ultimately the bubble dissipates delivering the bioactiveat the site of processing of the protein.

It has been previously shown by applicants that microbubble conjugationof bioactive agents can be used in targeted delivery protocols withdelivery of the biologic upon application of ultrasound to the targetsite, causing cavitation of the microbubble and ultimate release of thebiologic at the site in interaction with the ultrasound field. Quiteunexpectedly, applicant has now discovered that application ofultrasound is not necessary for the targeted delivery of biologics tosites of bioprocessing of the protein coating. The protein traffics themicrobubble and conjugate to sites of processing and as the bubblesdissipate the oligo or other biologic is released to interact with thesite allowing for a fraction of the biologic to achieve the samebiological effect.

In a preferred embodiment the agent of the invention is aperfluorocarbon enhanced sonicated dextrose albumin solution comprisedof a sonicated three-fold dilution of 5% human serum albumin with 5%dextrose. During sonication, the solution is perfused withperfluorocarbon gas for about 80 seconds which lowers the solubility anddiffusivity of the microbubble gas. The resulting microbubbles areconcentrated at room temperature for at least about 120±5 minuteswherein the excess solution settles in the sonicating syringe. Themicrobubbles are then exposed to a therapeutic agent and allowed tointeract such that the agent becomes conjugated to the microbubbles.Next the conjugated microbubbles are transferred to a sterile syringeand injected parenterally into a mammal, preferably near the target siteof activity of the agent.

Methods of ultrasonic imaging in which microbubbles formed by sonicatingan aqueous protein solution are injected into a mammal to alter theacoustic properties of a predetermined area, which is thenultrasonically scanned to obtain an image for use in medical procedures,are well known. For example, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,572,203, 4,718,433 and4,774,958, the contents of each of which are incorporated herein byreference.

It is the use of these types of contrast agents as a pharmaceuticalcomposition as part of a targeted delivery system that is the novelimprovement of this invention. The use of a nitrogen-free environment inthe manufacture of the contrast agents is also a novel improvement inthe effectiveness of the contrast agent in myocardial imaging.

The invention has been shown to drastically improve the efficiency andtherapeutic activity by altering biodistribution of several drugsincluding, most notably, anti-sense oligonucleotides which have beentraditionally plagued with ineffective pharmacologic parameters,including high clearance rate and toxicity.

This is particularly significant as the microbubble-therapeutic agenttherapy can reduce any toxic effects of persons who perhaps could nottolerate certain therapeutics at doses and concentrations necessary toachieve a beneficial result.

The protein substance such as human serum albumin is easily metabolizedwithin the body and excreted outside and hence is not harmful to thehuman body. Further gas trapped within the microbubbles is extremelysmall and is easily dissolved in blood fluid, perfluoropropane andperfluorobutane have long been known to be safe in humans. Both havebeen used in humans for intra ocular injections to stabilize retinaldetachments. Wong and Thompson, Ophthalmology 95:609-613. Thus the antithrombosis agents of the invention are extremely safe and nontoxic forpatients.

The invention is particularly useful for delivery of nucleotidesequences in the form of gene therapy vectors, or anti-sense ofanti-gene type strategies to ultimately alter gene expressions in targetcells.

Antisense oligonucleotides represent potential tools in research andtherapy by virtue of their ability to specifically inhibit synthesis oftarget proteins. A major theoretical advantage of these oligos is theirpotential specificity for binding to one site in the cell. According toone embodiment of the invention a synthetic oligonucleotide of at least6 nucleotides, preferably complementary to DNA (antigene) or RNA(antisense), which interferes with the process of transcription ortranslation of endogenous proteins is presented.

Any of the known methods for oligonucleotide synthesis can be used toprepare the oligonucleotides. They are most conveniently prepared usingany of the commercially available, automated nucleic acid synthesizers,such as applied biosystems, Inc., DNA synthesizer (Model 380B).According to manufacturers protocols using phosphoroamidite chemistry.After biosystems (Foster City, Calif.). Phosphorothioateoligonucleotides were synthesized and purified according to the methodsdescribed in Stek and Zahn J. Chromatography, 326:263-280 and in AppliedBiosystems, DNA Synthesizer, User Bulletin, Models380A-380B-381A-391-EP, December 1989. The oligo is introduced to cellsby methods which are known to those of skill in the art. See Iverson, etal., “Anti-Cancer Drug Design”, 1991, 6531-6538, incorporated herein byreference.

Traditional limitations of oligonucleotide therapy have been preparationof the oligonucleotide analogue which is substantially resistant to theendo and exonucleases found in the blood and cells of the body. Whileunmodified oligos have been shown to be effective, several modificationsto these oligos has helped alleviate this problem.

Modified or related nucleotides of the present invention can include oneor more modifications of the nucleic acid bases, sugar moieties,internucleoside phosphate linkages, or combinations of modifications atthese sites. The internucleoside phosphate linkages can bephosphorothioate, phosphoramidate; methylphosphonate, phosphorodithioateand combinations of such similar linkages (to produce mix backbonemodified oligonucleotides). Modifications may be internal or at theend(s) of the oligonucleotide molecule and can include additions to themolecule of the internucleoside phosphate linkages, such as cholesterol,diamine compounds with varying numbers of carbon residues between theamino groups, and terminal ribose, deoxyriboase and phosphatemodifications which cleave, or crosslink to the opposite chains or toassociated enzymes or other proteins which bind to the genome.

These modifications traditionally help shield the oligo from enzymaticdegradation within the cell. Any of the above modifications can be usedwith the method of the invention. However, in preferred embodiment themodification is a phosphorothioate oligonucleotide.

The following examples are for illustration purposes only and are notintended to limit this invention in any way. It will be appreciated bythose of skill in the art, that numerous other protein-bioactive agentcombinations can be used in the invention and are even contemplatedherein. For example, if the filmogenic protein is transferrin, thebioactive agent could be any transferrin binding pharmacologic. In allthe following examples, all parts and percentages are by weight unlessotherwise mentioned, all dilutions are by volume.

EXAMPLE 1 Phosphorothioate Oligonucleotide Synthesis

Chain extension syntheses were performed on a 1 μmole column support onan ABI Model 391 DNA synthesizer (Perkin Elmer, Foster City, Calif.) orprovided by Lynx Therapeutics, Inc. (Hayward Calif.). The 1 micromolesynthesis employed cyanoethyl phosphoroamidites and sulfurization withtetraethylthiuram disulfide as per ABI user Bulletin 58.

Radiolabeled oligonucleotides were synthesized as hydrogen phosphonatematerial by Glen Research (Bethesda, Md.). The uniformly ³⁵S-labeledPS-ODN with sequences 5′-TAT GCT GTG CCG GGG TCT TCG GGC 3′ (24-mercomplementary to c-myb) (SEQ ID NO:2) and 5′ TTAGGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO:3)were incubated in a final volume of 0.5 ml with theperfluorocarbon-exposed sonicated dextrose albumin microbubble solutionfor 30 minutes at 37° C. The solutions were allowed to stand so that thebubbles could rise to the top and 100 microliters were removed from theclear solution at the bottom and 100 microliters were removed from thetop containing the microbubbles.

Preparation of Microbubble Agent

Five percent human serum albumin and five percent dextrose were obtainedfrom a commercial source. Three parts of 5% dextrose and one part 5%human serum albumin (total 16 milliliters) were drawn into a35-milliliter Monojet syringe. Each dextrose albumin sample was handagitated with 8±2 milliliters of either a fluorocarbon gas(decafluorobutane; molecular weight 238 grams/mole) or 8±2 millilitersof room air, and the sample was then exposed to electromechanicalsonication at 20 kilohertz for 80±5 seconds. The mean size of fourconsecutive samples of the perfluorocarbon-exposed sonicated dextrosealbumin (PESDA) microbubbles produced in this manner, as measured withhemocytometry was 4.6±0.4 microns, and mean concentration, as measuredby a Coulter counter was 1.4×10⁹ bubbles/milliliter. The solution ofmicrobubbles was then washed in a 1000 times volume excess of 5%dextrose to remove albumin which was not associated with themicrobubbles. The microbubbles were allowed four hours to rise. Thelower solution was then removed leaving the washed foam. The washed foamwas then mixed with 0.9% sodium chloride.

Binding Assays

The radioactive 24-mer PS-ODN was added to a washed solution of PESDAand room air sonicated dextrose albumin (RA-SDA) microbubbles at aconcentration of 5 nM. Non-radioactive PS-ODN 20-mer was added to tubescontaining radioactive 24-mer in a series of increasing concentrations(0, 3.3, 10, 32.7, 94.5, 167, and 626 μM). The suspension of bubbles ismixed by inversion and incubated at 37° C. for 60 minutes.

Measurement of Radioactivity

Radioactivity in solutions were determined by liquid scintillationcounting in a liquid scintillation counter (model LSC7500; BeckmanInstruments GmbH, Munich, Germany). The sample volume was 100 μl towhich 5 ml of Hydrocount biodegradable scintillation cocktail was addedand mixed. Samples were counted immediately after each experiment andthen again 24 hours later in order to reduce the influence ofchemiluminescence and of quenching.

Flow Cytometry

The uniformity of room air versus perfluorocarbon-containing sonicateddextrose albumin microbubble binding of PS-ODN was determined by flowcytometry. A solution of microbubbles was washed in a 1000 fold excessvolume of sterile saline. Three groups of samples were prepared intriplicate as follows; Group A (control) in which 100 μl of microbubbleswere added to a 900 μL of saline, Group B in which 100 μ/l ofmicrobubbles were added to 900 μL of saline and 2 μL of FITC-labeled20-mer was added (final 20-mer concentration is 151 nM), and group C inwhich 100 μL of microbubbles were added to 800 μL of saline, 2 μL ofFITC-labeled 20-mer and 100 μL of unlabeled 20-mer(final concentrationis 151 nM). The incubations were all conducted for 20 minutes at roomtemperature.

Washed microbubble suspensions were diluted in sterile saline (Baxter)and then incubated with FITC-labeled PS-ODN. Flow cytometric analysiswas performed using a FACStar Plus (Becton Dickinson) equipped with t100 mW air-cooled argon laser and the Lysis II acquisition and analysissoftware. List mode data were employed for a minimum of 10⁴ collectedmicrobubbles and independent analysis a for each sample.

Study Protocol

A variable flow microsphere scanning chamber was developed for the studywhich is similar to that we have described previously Mor-Avi V., et al“Stability of Albunex microspheres under ultrasonic irradiation; and invitro study. J Am Soc Echocardiology 7:S29, 1994. This system consistsof a circular scanning chamber connected to a Masterflex flowsystem(Microgon, Inc., Laguna Hills Calif.) The scanning chamber wasenclosed on each side by water-filled chambers and bound on each side byacoustically transparent material. The PS-ODN-labeled PESDA microbubbles(0.1 milliliters) were injected as a bolus over one second proximal tothe scanning chamber which then flowed through plastic tubing into a tapwater-filled scanning chamber at a controlled flow rate of 100 ml/min.As the bubbles passed through the scanning chamber, the scanner(2.0Megahertz) frequency, 1.2 Megapascals peak negative pressure) was set toeither deliver ultrasound at a conventional 30 Hertz frame rate or wasshut off. Following passage through the scanning chamber, the solutionwas then passed through the same size plastic tubing into a graduatedcylinder. The first 10 milliliters was discarded. Following this, thenext 10 milliliters was allowed to enter into a collection tube. Thecollection tube containing the effluent microbubbles was allowed tostand in order to separate microbubbles on the top from whatever freeoligonucleotide existed in the lower portion of the sample. Drops fromboth the upper and lower operation of the effluent were then placed upona hemocytometer slide and analyzed using a 10×magnification. Photographsof these slides were then made and the number of microbubbles over a 36square centimeter field were then hand-counted. The upper and lowerlayers of the remaining effluent were then used for analysis ofoligonucleotide content using flow cytometry in the same mannerdescribed below.

Microbubble samples exposed to the various oligonucleotide solution weremixed 15(v/v) with a solution of formamide and EDTA and heated to 95° C.for 5 minutes. These samples were then examined on an Applied BiosystemsModel 373A DNA sequencer with e 20% polyacrylamide gel. The data wereacquired with GeneScanner software so that fluorescence intensity areaunder the curve could be determined.

EXAMPLE 2 Phosphorothioate Oligonucleotide Binding of PESDA VersusRA-SDA Microbubbles

The partitioning of PS-ODN to PESDA microbubbles top layer) andnon-bubble washed (albumin-free) and unwashed (non-bubble albumincontaining) lower layers as counted by liquid scintillation counting aredemonstrated in Table 1.

TABLE 1 OLIGONUCLEOTIDES BINDING TO ALBUMIN OF PESDA MICROBUBBLES TOPBOTTOM RATIO N cpm/μl cpm/μl T/B BUBBLES IN THE PRESENCE OF FREE ALBUMINTTAGGG 6  125 ± 6.4  92.3 ± 6.4  1.35 c-myb 6 94.1 ± 17.6 77.3 ± 1.2 1.35 WASHED BUBBLES (NO FREE ALBUMIN) TTAGGG 6  210 ± 10.8  126 ± 8.7 1.67 c-myb 6 200.3 ± 37.4  92.7 ± 15.7 2.16

These data indicate that albumin in the unwashed solution which is notassociated with the microbubble will bind to the PS-ODN so that thepartitioning of PS-ODN is equivalent between microbubbles(top layer) andthe surrounding solution (lower layer; p=HS). Removal of non-microbubbleassociated albumin (Washed Bubbles in Table 1) does not show asignificant partitioning of the PS-ODNs with the PESDA microbubbles(1.67 for TTAGGG PS-ODN and 2.16 for c-myb PS-ODN). The recovery oftotal radioactivity in the experiments reported in Table 1 is 96% of theradioactivity added which is not significantly different from 100%.

The affinity of binding of PS-ODN to washed microbubbles was evaluatedby addition of increasing amounts of excess non-radioactive PS=ODN as acompeting ligand for binding sites. In this case a 20mer PS-ODN withsequence 5′-d(CCC TGC TCC CCC CTG GCT CC)-3′ (SEQ ID NO:4) was employedto displace the radioactive 24mer. Albumin protein concentrations in thewashed microbubble experiments was 0.28±0.04 mg/ml as determined by theBradford Assay Bradford M et al “A Rapid and Sensitive Method for thequantification of microgram quantities of protein utilizing theprinciple of protein-dye binding” anal. Bioche,. 72:248, 1976. Theobserved binding data are presented as a Lineweaver Burke plot in FIG.1. The equilibrium dissociation constant K_(m) (calculated for the 7concentrations which were run in duplicate) for the binding to themicrobubbles was 1.76×10⁻⁵ M.

The distribution of FITC-labeled microbubbles is provided in Table 2.

TABLE 2 DISTRIBUTION OF OLIGONUCLEOTIDE (PS-ODN) BOUND MICROBUBBLES 151nM Excess Control PS-ODN FITC PS-ODN Unlabeled ODN No. PE MI PE MI PE MI1 99.5 2.38 98.9 2109.8 97.8 1753.1 2 99.3 4.07 99.1 2142.3 98.7 1710.93 99.4 3.52 99.1 2258.5 99.3 1832.2 mean 3.23 2170   1765   ±SE ±0.50±46¹ ±36^(1,2) PE = percent events MI = mean intensity SE = standarderror ¹indicates this mean is significantly different form control, P <0.001 ²indicates this mean is significantly different form 151 nM, P <0.01

The significant decrease in mean fluorescence intensity in the samplescontaining excess unlabeled PS-ODN indicates the binding to microbubblesis saturable. Consequently, since the binding is saturable, thenonspecific interactions of PS-ODN with the microbubble surface arelimited. A Gaussian distribution of PS-ODN to washed PESDA microbubblesindicated that the albumin on these microbubbles had retained itsbinding site for the oligonucleotide. The absence of a Gaussiandistribution for washed RA-SDA indicated loss of albumin binding site 1for this oligonucleotide occurred during sonication of thesemicrobubbles. For a discussion of albumin binding characteristicsparticularly as they relate to oligonucleotides see Kumar, Shashi et al“Characterization of Binding Sites, Extent of Binding, and DrugInteractions of Oligonucleotides with Albumin” Antisense Research andDevelopment 5: 131-139 (1995) the disclosure of which is herebyincorporated by reference.

From the foregoing it can be seen that, PS-ODN binds to the albumin inPESDA microbubbles, indicating that the binding site 1 on albumin isbiologically active following production of these bubbles byelectromechanical sonication. This binding site affinity is lost whenthe electromechanical sonication is performed only with room sir.Further, removal of albumin not associated with PESDA microbubbles bywashing shows a significant partitioning of the PS-ODNs with themicrobubbles (Table 1). These observations demonstrate that albumindenaturation does not occur with perfluorocarbon-containing dextrosealbumin solutions during sonication as has been suggested withsonication in the presence of air. The retained bioactivity ofalbumin(especially at site 1) in PESDA microbubbles was confirmed by theaffinity of binding of PS-ODN to washed PESDA microbubbles in thepresence of increasing amounts of excess non-radioactive PS-ODN as acompeting ligand for binding sites (Table 2). The significant decreasein mean fluorescence intensity in the samples containing excessunlabeled PS=-ODN indicates the binding to microbubbles is saturable.

EXAMPLE 3 Altered Biodistribution Via Microbubble Delivery of AntisenseOligos

According to the invention antisense phosphorothioate oligonucleotideswere designed to the cytochrome P450 IIB1 gene sequence to alter themetabolism of Phenobarbital. The oligonucleotides were conjugated toperfluoropropane exposed sonicated dextrose albumin microbubbles (PESDA)as earlier described and delivered to rats intravenously. Theoligonucleotide was synthesized according to the rat cytochrome P450IIB1 known sequence and had the following sequence:

GGAGCAAGATACTGGGCTCCAT (SEQ ID NO:5)

AAAGAAGAGAGAGAGCAGGGAG (SEQ ID NO:6)

Male Sprague-Dawley rats (Sasco, Omaha), were used and weighed between210 to 290 grams for all studies. They were housed in animal quarters atthe University of Nebraska Medical Center, AAALAC approved animalresource facility. The animals were exposed to 12 hour light/dark cycleand allowed access to Purina rat chow and tap water ad libitum.

Rats in groups with PB were injected intraperitoneally withphenobarbital (Mallinckrodt, St. Louis) at 80 ml/kg/day×2 days. The PBinjections were given simultaneously with the ODN-microbubbleinjections. Phosphorothioate ODN injections were 1 ml/kg/day×2 days.Sleep times were measured 48 hours after the first injection. The ratswere injected intraperitoneally with 100 ml/kg hexobarbital (Sigma, St.Louis), paired fresh daily. The volume of this injection is 1 ml/kg bodyweight.

Each rat was injected with 100 mg/kg of hexobarbital intraperitoneally.The animals were placed on their backs to insure that they were stillunder sedation from the hexobarbital. Sleep time is defined as the timethey are placed on their backs to the time when they roll over. Thesleep times listed are the mean of each animal in the group±standarddeviation.

Results indicate that delivery of the oligonucleotide conjugatedmicrobubbles greatly improved efficacy of the drug. Rats given 1/20thdose of oligo experienced a sleep time of more than 50 minutes. This iscompared to non microbubble conjugated oligo with an approximate sleeptime of 13 minutes.

Rats were ultimately sacrificed using ethyl ether and microsomes wereprepared as described by Franklin and Estabrook (1971). Livers wereperfused with 12 ml of 4% saline via the portal vein and then removedfrom the animal. The livers were minced, homogenized in 0.25 M sucrose(Sigma) and centrifuged at 8000×g for 20 minutes at 4° C. in a SorvallRC2-B centrifuge (Dupont, Wilmington, Del.). The supernatant was savedand resuspended in a 0.25 M sucrose and centrifuged at 100,000×g for 45minutes at 4° C. in a Sorvall OTD55B ultracentrifuge (Dupont). Thepellet was resuspended in 1.15% KCL (Sigma) and centrifuged at 100,000×gfor 1 hour at 4° C. with the final pellet resuspended in an equal volumebuffer (10 mM Tris-acetate, 1 mM EDTA, 20% glycerol; Sigma) and frozenat −80° C.

Protein concentrations were determined by Bradford assay (Bradford,1976). 80 μl aliquots of homogenate were added to a 96 well plate(Becton, Dickinson Labware, Lincoln Park, N.J.). 20 μl of Bradfordreagent (Bio-Rad Richmond, Calif.) was then added and the plates read at595 nm on the microplate reader (Molecular Devices, Newport Minn.). Thedata was compared to standard curve generated with known concentrationsof bovine serum albumin (Sigma).

CYP IIB1 content was determined by pentoxyresorufin O-dealkylation(PROD) activity (Burke et al. 1985). For each microsomal sample, 1 mgprotein in 1 ml 0.1 M potassium phosphate buffer, 1 ml 2 μM5-pentoxyresorufin (Pierce, Rockford, Ill.), and 17 μl 60 mM NADPH weremixed and incubated for 10 minutes at 37° C. The mixture was then addedto a 2 ml cuvette and read on a RF5000U spectrofluorophotometer(Shimadzu, Columbia, Md.) using an excitation wavelength of 530 nm andemission wavelength of 585 nm. Concentrations of unknowns werecalculated from a standard curve of resorufin (Pierce, Rockford, Ill.)standards. Results were recorded in nmol resorufin/mg protein/min.

Direct measurement of CYP IIB1 protein was determined by an ELISA assayusing an antibody directed the CYP IIB1 protein (Schuurs and Van Weeman,1977). 50 μg of liver per well were plated in 100 μl 0.35% sodiumbicarbonate buffer overnight on a 96 well nunc-immuno plate (InterMed,Skokie, Ill.). The microsomes were washed 3× with 1% bovine serumalbumin in PBS (PBS/BSA) and incubated for 1 hr at 37° C. with 200 μlPBS/BSA. The PBS/BSA was removed and 50 μl of CYP IIB1 antibody(Oxygene, Dallas) was added and incubated for 1 hour at 37° C. Themicrosomes were washed 5× with saline/tween 20 (Sigma) and had 50 μlhorseradish peroxidase antibody (Bio-rad) added. The microsomes wereincubated for 1 hour at 37° C., washed 5× with saline/tween 20 and twicewith 85% saline. 100 μl of horseradish peroxidase substrate (Kirkegaard& Perry Labs, Gaithersburg, Md.) was added and the plate readcontinuously in a microplate reader (Molecular Devices) at 405 nm for 1hour. Results were recorded as horseradish peroxidase activity inmOD/min.

Results demonstrated that the oligo conjugated microbubbles directed theoligo to the liver and kidney. These are site s of phenobarbitolmetabolism. As described earlier, 100 mg/kg HB was injected i.p. to eachanimal at the end of 2 days of treatment with PB and/or the ODNs.Control rats had a sleep time of about 23 minutes. PB had a significantreduction in sleep time to about 11.4±4.5 minutes. PB stimulates CYPIIB1 mRNA, as a result, hexobarbital which is hydroxylated by CYP IIB1is more quickly metabolized and its sedative effect reduced.

EXAMPLE 4 Comparison Study of Microbubbles Formed in Nitrogen-FreeVersus Room Air Environments

The perfluorocarbon containing microbubbles (PCMB) used for this studywere perfluorocarbon exposed sonicated dextrose albumin. To preparethese microbubbles, one part 5% human serum albumin and three parts 5%dextrose (total of 16 ml) were combined in a 35 ml Monoject syringe(Sherwood Medical, St. Louis, Mo.). This sample was then hand-agitatedwith 8 ml of fluorocarbon gas (decafluorobutane; MW 238 g/mol).Following the agitation, the sample underwent electromechanicalsonication for 80±2 seconds.

For in vivo studies, the 80 second sonication process was performed intwo different environments: either room air or 100% oxygen(nitrogen-free environment) was blown into the interface between thesonicating horn and perfluorocarbon dextrose albumin solution duringsonication. Each of the samples prepared in this manner had microbubblesize determined with hemocytometry and concentration determined with aCoulter counter (Coulter Electronics, Inc. Hiahleah, Fla.).

In Vitro Scanning Chamber Set Up

The scanning chamber system consisted of a 35 ml cylindrical scanningchamber connected to a peristaltic Masterflex flow system (Microgon,Inc., Laguna Hills, Calif.). Enclosed on both sides of the scanningchamber are cylindrical saline filled chambers, bound by acousticallytransparent latex material that is 6.6 microns in thickness (Safeskin,Inc.; Boca Raton, Fla.). Pressure within the scanning chamber duringultrasound exposure was measured with a pressure transducer placed justproximal to the scanning chamber (model 78304A; Hewlett Packard Co.,Andover, Mass.), and averaged 7±3 mm Hg throughout all of the trials.

Two different 2.0 Megahertz ultrasound transducers were used for the invitro studies (Hewlett Packard 1500; Andover, Mass.; and HDI 3000,Advanced Technology Laboratories, Bothell, Wash.). The peak negativepressure generated by the Hewlett Packard transducer was 1.1megapascals, while it was 0.9 megapascals for the HDI 3000 scanner.Imaging depth for all studies was 8.2 centimeters, and the focal pointfor both transducers was 8 centimeters. The frame rate for eachtransducer was either conventional (30-42 Hertz) or intermittent (1Hertz). All images from the scanning chamber were recorded on highfidelity videotape.

In Vitro Protocol

Arterial blood during room air inhalation was taken from four dogs andthree healthy pigs just prior to sacrifice. In four of the animals,additional arterial blood was obtained after the animal had inhaled 100%oxygen for a minimum of 10 minutes. The blood was collected in 60 mlheparinized syringes, and kept in a warm water bath at 37° C. untilinjected into the scanning chamber. Immediately before injection of theblood into the scanning chamber, 0.2 ml of PCMB were injected via astopcock into the 60 ml syringe of blood, and mixed gently by invertingand rolling the syringe by hand.

Once the PCMB were well-mixed with the blood, the tip cap was removedfrom the syringe, and the syringe was connected to plastic tubing (3.5mm in diameter) proximal to the Masterflex flow system. At a flow rateof 50 ml/minute, the contrast filled blood flowed from the syringe intothe tubing and then into the scanning chamber. Once the chamber wasfilled, the closed stopcock connecting the scanning chamber to theplastic tubing distal to the chamber was opened, and ultrasound exposure(intermittent at 1 Hertz frame rate or conventional at 30-45 Hertz) wasinitiated. The effluent blood after ultrasound exposure flowed out ofthe scanning chamber into tubing which was connected to a graduatedcylinder. The first 10 ml of blood was discarded, and the next 15 ml ofblood that flowed from the chamber was collected in three 5 ml aliquotsinto inverted capped syringes. Three minutes following the collection ofthe last 5 ml sample, a tuberculin syringe was dipped into the top levelof the effluent blood and a drop placed on a hemocytometer slide; thislength of time was chose to allow the microbubbles in the effluent bloodto rise to the top and be collected. The hemocytometer slide was thenexamined at 40×magnification with a light microscope (Olympus BH-2,Olympus America Inc., Woodbury, N.Y.) and the field containing thehighest concentration of microbubbles was photographed on thehemocytometer field.

The photos were later enlarged on a photocopy machine, and a 25 cm²field was chosen to analyze concentration and the diameter of eachmicrobubble in the field. The mean diameter was calculated, thus givingmean microbubble size. Concentration was determined by counting thetotal number of bubbles in the entire slide. Microbubble concentrationmeasured with this technique has correlated very closely with Coultercounter measurements, and size measurements with this technique havebeen calibrated with a known 5 micron sphere (Coulter Size StandardsNominal 5 μm Microspheres, Miami, Fla.).

In Vivo Studies

The inventors subsequently tested the effect of a nitrogen-freeenvironment within the perfluorocarbon microbubble by randomly givingintravenous injections of PCMB of the same concentration of microbubblesexposed to either 100% oxygen (O2 PCMB) or room air (RA PCMB) duringsonication. Imaging was performed with a 1.7 megahertz harmonictransducer (HDI 3000; Advanced Technology Laboratories; Bothell, Wash.).Transducer output was set to 0.3-0.8 megapascals, and kept constant forall comparisons of videointensity from the two different microbubblesamples. Frame rates for comparison of background subtracted myocardialvideointensity were either 43 Hertz (conventional) or 10 Hertz(intermittent). All procedures were approved by the Institutional AnimalCare and Use Committee and was in compliance with the Position of theAmerican Heart Association on Research Animal Use.

The bolus injections of RA PCMB and O2 PCMB were either 0.0025 or 0.005ml/kg, since the concentrations of each microbubble were the same. Peakanterior and posterior myocardial videointensity were measured fromdigitized super VHS videotape images (Maxell, Japan) obtained off-lineusing a Tom-Tech review station (Louisville, Colo.). This quantifiesvideointensity over a 1-255 gray scale range. The region of interest wasplaced in the mid myocardium of each segment.

In addition to this quantitative analysis, the visual assessment ofregional myocardial contrast enhancement in the anterior, septal,lateral, and posterior regions from the short axis view was made by twoindependent reviewers. Each region was assigned a 0 (no myocardialcontrast), 1+ (mild myocardial contrast enhancement) or 2+ (brightmyocardial contrast enhancement which approached cavity intensity).

Statistical Analysis

An unpaired t test was used to compare microbubble size andconcentration of the PCMB samples exposed to different gases duringsonications. This was also used to compare differences in peakmyocardial videointensity in the in vivo studies. If the data was notnormally distributed, a non-parametric test was performed. Comparisonsof visual myocardial contrast enhancement following intravenous O2 PCMBand RA PCMB were made with continency tables (Fisher's Exact Test). A pvalue less than 0.05 was considered significant.

A coefficient of variation was used to measure interobserver variabilityin the measurements of microbubble size and concentration in the invitro studies. A mean difference between independent reviewers was usedto compare interobserver variations in peak myocardial videointensity.

Results

Table 3 demonstrates differences in mean microbubble size for PCMB afterexposure to ultrasound in arterial blood (room air and 100% oxygen).When PCMB were exposed to 100% oxygenated arterial blood, there was asignificant decrease in mean microbubble size after insonation (p=0.01).The smaller microbubble size was seen both after intermittent imaging(7.3±3.7 microns room air vs. 6.4±3.2 microns 100% oxygen) and afterconventional imaging (7.5±3.5 microns room air vs. 6.3±3.0 microns 100%oxygen).

Microbubble concentration decreased significantly after exposure toconventional frame rates when compared to intermittent imaging in roomair arterial blood (Table 3). However, conventional frame rates at thesame transducer output did not destroy as many PCMB when they were inoxygenated arterial blood.

TABLE 3 COMPARISON OF EFFLUENT PESDA MICROBUBBLE SIZE AFTER EXPOSURE TODIFFERENT ULTRASOUND FRAME RATES IN ROOM AIR AND 100% OXYGENATEDARTERIAL BLOOD MB size MB Conc. (No./hpf) (μm) Conv Inter Arterial 7.4 ±3.6  6 ± 8 16 ± 11 Arterial + O₂ 6.3 ± 3.1 11 ± 9 14 ± 9* Conv =Conventional frame rates (80 to 43 Hz) No./hpf = Number of microbubblesper high-power field MB = microbubble Inter = Intermittent imaging at 1Hz *p < 0.05 r test compared with arterial samples p < 0.05 comparedwith arterial conv.

In Vivo Studies

A total of six comparisons of peak myocardial videointensity between O₂PCMB and RA PCMB were made in the three dogs. In Table 4, it can be seenthat prior to injection, the PCMB sonicated in the presence of 100%oxygen were similar in size and concentration to PCMB sonicated in thepresence of room air. However, in all three dogs, the peak myocardialvideointensity using the 10 Hertz frame rate (intermittent imaging) wassignificantly higher for the PCMB sonicated in the presence of 100%oxygen.

Only the oxygenated PCMB produced a consistent homogenous myocardialcontrast at the doses used for transthoracic imaging. Visual myocardialcontrast was 2+ in 20 of the 24 regions following intravenous O₂ PCMBinjections compared to 9 or 24 regions following the same dose of RAPCMB (p=0.001).

TABLE 4 COMPARISON OF PMVI PRODUCED IN ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR WALL OFLEFT VENTRICULAR SHORT-AXIS VIEW AT MID PAPILLARY MUSCLE LEVEL AFTERINTRAVENOUS VEIN INJECTION OF PCMB SONICATED IN THE PRESENCE OF 100%OXYGEN AND ROOM AIR Microbubble PMVI (units) Conc Ant Post Size (μm)(No./hpf) RA PCMB 54 ± 12 19 ± 9  4.0 ± 2.4 109 ± 30 O₂ PCMB 70 ± 6* 31± 5* 3.9 ± 2.3 108 ± 50 Ant = anterior myocardium Conc = microbubbleconcentration immediately after sonication O₂ PCMB = perfluorocarbonmicrobubbles sonicated in the presence of 100% oxygen PMVI = peakmyocardial videointensity Post = posterior myocardium RA PCMB =perfluorocarbon microbubbles sonicated in the presence of room airNo./hpf = number of microbubbles per high-power field *p < 0.05 comparedwith RA PCMB

Interobserver Variability in Microbubble Size, Concentration, andVideointensity Measurements

Two independent observers measured microbubble size and concentration ofsix different slides exposed to either intermittent or conventionalultrasound frame rates. The coefficient of variation for measurements ofmicrobubble size by two independent observers in six different sampleswas 8% (r=0.95; p=0.004), while the coefficient of variation forindependent measurements of microbubble concentration was 9% (r=0.99;p<0.001). The reported mean difference in peak myocardial videointensitymeasurements by two independent reviewers for transthoracic imaging is4±4 units (r=0.94, SEE=5 units; p<0.001; n=24 comparisons), which iswell below the 16 unit mean difference in anterior and 13 unit meandifference in posterior peak myocardial videointensity between O2 PCMBand RA PCMB. The two investigators were in agreement of the visualdegree of contrast enhancement in 37 of the 44 regions (84%). Five ofthe discrepancies were in visual grading of RA PCMB myocardial contrastenhancement (0 vs 1+ in two regions, 1+vs. 2+ in three regions). Thethree regions where there was disagreement on whether there was 1+vs 2+were assigned a 2+ in the statistical analysis.

Microbubbles containing an albumin shell such as the one used in thisstudy permit rapid diffusion of soluble gases across their membranes.Perfluorocarbon containing microbubbles survive longer than room aircontaining microbubbles with the same membrane because of the slow rateof diffusion of this higher molecular weight gas and its insolubility inblood. These microbubbles, however, still contain a significant quantityof room air gas and thus are not affected by the concentration gradientthat exists across the albumin membrane. Since surface tension andabsorptive pressures are increased as microbubble diameter decreases, itwas hypothesized that the videointensity produced by intravenous PCMBwould also be affected by alterations in nitrogen and oxygenconcentration inside and outside the microbubble.

The in vitro studies confirmed that oxygenated blood reduced PCMB sizebut did not completely destroy them as has been shown with pure room aircontaining albumin microbubbles. Wible J. Jr., et al. (1993), Effects ofinspired gas on the efficacy of Albunex® in dogs. Circulation88(suppl):1-401. Abstract. To counter this process, the inventorsattempted to reverse this diffusion gradient by removing nitrogen withinthe microbubbles. It was hypothesized that this would have the oppositeeffect of that seen with oxygenated blood, resulting in nitrogendiffusion inward. The in vitro and in vivo findings of this study appearto support this hypothesis.

PESDA Microbubble Concentration and Size in Arterial Blood: In VitroStudies

It has previously been shown that PCMB diameter increases after initialexposure to blood at 37° C., most likely from gas expansion from roomtemperature to body temperature. Although this explains why microbubblesize increased in all samples tested, the PCMB exposed to 100%oxygenated arterial blood were significantly smaller in size compared toPCMB exposed to room air blood (Table 3). This observation was seen bothfollowing intermittent and conventional imaging. Without wishing to bebound by any theory, it is postulated the one potential explanation forthis is the differences in nitrogen diffusion gradients across themicrobubble membrane. Since all PCMB in the in vitro study weresonicated in the presence of room air, there was a significant quantityof nitrogen within the microbubble. Mathematical models have suggestedthat microbubbles containing insoluble gases persist longer if tissueand blood contain nitrogen. (Burkard 1994). In the absence of bloodnitrogen (i.e.: 100% oxygenated blood), nitrogen from within the PCMBwould have diffused out of the PCMB, reducing their size.

As expected, microbubble concentrations in room air blood weresignificantly reduced when exposed to higher frame rates. However, thisdestruction by more rapid frame rates was attenuated somewhat when thePCMB were in oxygenated blood. The reason for this difference isunclear. One possibility is that the more rapid diffusion of nitrogenout of the microbubbles in oxygenated blood created a higher internalconcentration of perfluorocarbon, and thus increased the diffusiongradient for the insoluble perfluorocarbon. Due to its low solubility,its enhanced diffusion out of the microbubble would lead to theformation of smaller unencapsulated perfluorocarbon microbubbles. Thehemocytometry resolution would be unable to differentiate encapsulatedfrom unencapsulated microbubbles and thus would count them both. Thisexplanation may also account for the smaller mean microbubble sizeobserved for PCMB exposed to 100% oxygenated arterial blood.

PCMB Sonicated in a Nitrogen-Free Environment: In Vivo Demonstration ofImproved Efficacy Over PCMB Sonicated in the Presence of Room Air

Based on the in vitro studies, whether the detrimental effects of a highexternal oxygen content could be utilized to an advantage by loweringnitrogen content within the PCMB was examined. This was accomplished inour study by sonicating the PCMB in the presence of 100% oxygen. Sinceperfluorocarbons like decafluorobutane act as a mechanical stabilizer,it was hypothesized that this would create an environment where nitrogendiffuses inward following venous injection, further enhancing thestability of the PCMB in blood. This was consistently effective in theclosed chest studies in creating greater myocardial contrast than PCMBsonicated in the presence of room air. Even with intermittent imagingusing pulsing intervals as short as 100 milliseconds (10 Hertz imaging),visually evident myocardial contrast was still achieved with themicrobubbles sonicated in nitrogen-free environment.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for delivering an oligonucleotidetargeting cytochrome p450 to a tissue site selected from the liver andkidney, comprising: administering intraperitoneally to an animal acomposition formed by incubating said oligonucleotide with a suspensionof albumin-encapsulated, SF₆- or perfluorocarbon gas-filledmicrobubbles.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said microbubbles havean enhanced oxygen content and a decreased partial pressure of nitrogencompared to that of microbubbles formed by room air sonication.
 3. Themethod of claim 2, wherein said microbubbles are formed by sonication ina nitrogen free environment.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein saidenvironment consists of oxygen.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein saidmicrobubbles are formed by the steps of: mixing an aqueous solutioncomprising about 2% to about 10% by weight of human serum albumin withabout two to eight volumes of an aqueous solution comprising 5% to 50%by weight of dextrose; agitating the solution with the gas; and exposingthe solution to a sonication horn in a nitrogen-free environment tocreate cavitation at particulate sites in said solution, therebygenerating stable microbubbles from about 0.1 to 10 microns in diameter.6. The method of claim 5, wherein said aqueous solution comprising about2% to about 10% by weight of human serum albumin is mixed with aboutthree volumes of an aqueous solution comprising 5% to 50% by weight ofdextrose.
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein said human serum albumin isa 5% by weight solution.
 8. The method of claim 5, wherein said dextroseis a 5% by weight solution.
 9. The method of claim 5, wherein saidnitrogen-free environment consists of oxygen.
 10. The method of claim 9,wherein the oxygen is blown into an interface between the sonicationhorn and the solution.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein saidoligonucleotide is conjugated to the albumin at a microbubble surface.12. A composition for administration of an oligonucleotide, comprising:a plurality of albumin-encapsulated insoluble gas-filled microbubbles,wherein the insoluble gas is a perfluorocarbon or SF₆; and anoligonucleotide, wherein said oligonucleotide is conjugated to thealbumin at a microbubble surface.
 13. The composition of claim 12,wherein said microbubbles are 0.1 to 10 microns in diameter.
 14. Thecomposition of claim 12, wherein the gas is a perfluorocarbon gas. 15.The composition of claim 12, wherein the microbubbles have a decreasedpartial pressure of nitrogen compared to that of microbubbles formed bysonication in room air.
 16. The composition of claim 15, wherein themicrobubbles are formed by: mixing an aqueous solution comprising about2% to about 10% by weight of human serum albumin with about two to eightvolumes of an aqueous solution comprising 5% to 50% by weight ofdextrose; agitating the solution with said insoluble gas; and exposingthe solution to a sonication horn in a nitrogen-free environment. 17.The composition of claim 16, wherein said nitrogen-free environmentconsists of oxygen.
 18. A method for delivering an oligonucleotidetargeting c-myc to a site of endothelial injury or thrombosis,comprising: administering intravenously to an animal a compositionformed by incubating said oligonucleotide with a suspension ofalbumin-encapsulated, SF₆- or perfluorocarbon gas-filled microbubbles.19. The method of claim 18, wherein the gas is a perfluorocarbon gasselected from the group consisting of perfluoromethane, perfluoroethane,perfluoropropane, perfluorobutane, and perfluoropentane.
 20. The methodof claim 19, wherein said gas is perfluoropropane.
 21. The method ofclaim 18, wherein said oligonucleotide is a phosphorothioateoligonucleotide.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein saidphosphorothioate oligonucleotide is an antisense oligonucleotide. 23.The method of claim 18, wherein said oligonucleotide is conjugated tothe albumin at a microbubble surface.
 24. A composition foradministration of an oligonucleotide, wherein said composition is formedby incubating said oligonucleotide with an aqueous suspension ofalbumin-encapsulated